- Compositional analysis of the 0- to 3-nm region near the surface for all elements except H and He

- Depth-compositional profiling and thin film analysis

- High lateral resolution surface chemical analysis and inhomogeneity studies to determine compositional variations in areas  100 nm

- Grain-boundary and other interface analyses facilitated by fracture

- Identification of phases in cross sections

- Analysis of surface contamination of materials to investigate its role in such properties as corrosion, wear, secondary electron emission, and catalysis

- Identification of chemical-reaction products, for example, in oxidation and corrosion

- In-depth compositional evaluation of surface films, coatings, and thin films used for various metallurgical surface modifications and microelectronic applications

- Analysis of grain-boundary chemistry to evaluate the role of boundary precipitation and solute segregation on mechanical properties, corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking phenomena

- Form: Solids (metals, ceramics, and organic materials) with relatively low vapor pressures (< 10 ^-8 torr at room temperature). Higher vapor pressure materials can be handled by sample cooling. Similarly, many liquid samples can be handled by sample cooling or by applying a thin film onto a conductive substrate

- Size: Individual powder particles as small as 1m in diameter can be analyzed. The maximum sample size depends on the specific instrument; 1.5 cm (0.6 inc.) in diameter by 0.5 cm (0.2 in.) high is not uncommon

- Surfacetopography: Flat surfaces are preferable, but rough surfaces can be analyzed in selected small areas (~ 1 m) or averaged over large areas (0.5 mm in diameter)

- Preparation: Frequently none. Samples must be free of fingerprints, oils, and other high vapor pressure materials

- Insensitivity to hydrogen and helium

- The accuracy of quantitative analysis is limited to  30% of the element present when calculated using published elemental sensitivity factors (Ref 1). Better quantification ( 10%) is possible by using standards that closely resemble the sample

- Electron beam damage can severely limit useful analysis of organic and biological materials and occasionally ceramic materials

- Electron beam charging may limit analysis when examining highly insulating materials

- Quantitative detection sensitivity for most elements is from 0.1 to 1.0 at. %

- Usually under 5 min for a complete survey spectrum from 0 to 2000 eV. Selected peak analyses for studying chemical effects, Auger elemental imaging, and depth profiling generally take much longer

- X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: Provides compositional and chemical binding state information, relatively nondestructive

- Ion scattering spectroscopy: Provides superb top atomic layer information, specificity of surface atomic bonding in selected cases, and surface composition and depth profiling information

- Secondary ion mass spectroscopy: High elemental detection sensitivity from part per million to part per billion levels; surface compositional information; depth profiling capability; sensitivity for all elements, including hydrogen and helium

- Electron probe: Analysis to 1-m depth in conventional operation, quantitative and nondestructive

- Analytical electron microscopy: Chemical analysis in conjunction with high-resolution microscopy